As the saga unfolds we are to monitor, measure and maximise the consequences for the greater good of the larger number. To have complete access to the thousands of philosophy articles on this site, please, Jim finds himself in the central square of a small South American town. Learn more in our Cookie Policy. Benthams theory of utilitarianism focussed on which actions were most likely to make people happy. and transmitted securely. The viewpoints expressed in this article are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views and policies of the AMA. Bias. Data Lab. Surgical nurses' perceptions of ethical dilemmas, moral distress and quality of care. The Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA) of 2008, for example, does not apply to FRT for genetic diagnosis, as FRT does not fit GINAs definition of genetic testing or genetic information.39 The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, which protects people with disabilities from discrimination in public life (eg, schools or employment),40 would also likely not apply to FRT used for diagnostic purposes if the conditions diagnosed are currently unexpressed. Chan School of Public Health. Atlas of human malformation syndromes in diverse populations. Subsequent actions are mediated though ethical decision-making frames of reference including deontology, consequentialism, the ethics of care and virtue ethics. A consequence of consequentialism, however, is that it fails to respect the integrity of the individuals involved. Consequentialism Consequentialism is a type of teleological theory -- consequentialist theories suggest that the moral value, the moral rightness or wrongness of an act, is entirely a function of the consequences, or the results of that act. Consequentialism Deontology (Biomedical Ethics) Charles Lohman . As consequentialism only looks at the consequences it allows for negative responsibility; that is, being held morally accountable not for some action, but for failing to act to prevent bad things happening. 2021 Sep 17;18(18):9786. doi: 10.3390/ijerph18189786. Bahrampour T. Can your face reveal how long youll live? 13 FRT is also being applied to predict behavior, pain, and emotions by identifying facial expressions associated with depression or pain, for example. Consequentialism entails that we can be held morally responsible for a lack of action, and whilst the case of the drowning child shows that it is possible to be indirectly responsible by not acting, in cases like Jims it involves going further than can be reasonably expected. Some of the moral philosophers associated with this theory include Jeremy Bentham, David Hume, Henry Sidgwick and many others. Nurses experiences of ethical dilemmas: A review. How could we have speeding laws, for example, if it would sometimes be ethical to break the speed limit? This chapter discusses consequentialism. Among the most prominent approaches to ethics within philosophy is a highly influential position known as consequentialism. Medium. The more good consequences an act produces, the better or more right that act. But if telling a lie would help save a person's life, consequentialism says it's the right thing to do. An action that brings about more benefit than harm is good, while an action that causes more harm than benefit is not. We will describe some examples of the influence of consequentialism over current medical law. Some statutes that protect health information might not apply to FRT. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Consequentialism is an ethical theory that judges whether or not something is right by what its consequences are. Background: However, since Jim is an honoured visitor from another land, the captain is happy to offer him a guests privilege of killing one of the Indians himself. The site is secure. By looking at the two ethical strands side-by-side we can quickly see that Deontology is distinctly focused on the individual, whereas Utilitarianism places importance on . You can read the details below. In this example: A hospital has limited capacity to deal with Covid-19 patients and is having to decide between admitting a 20 year old patient, who is fit and well, and a 75 year old patient, who has a history of heart disease, to their last available ventilator. Use of facial recognition technology for medical purposes: balancing privacy with innovation. The relatively small, single-site sample may not account for the effects of organisational culture on the results; the findings suggested that professional relationships were key to resolving ethical dilemmas. A person should do whatever leads to the best consequence. A few states, such as Illinois, have regulations that limit uses for which consumer biometric data can be collected.36 The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) governs handling of patients health records and personal health information and includes privacy protections for personally identifiable information. It is a problem that consequentialism forces us to take an impersonal, objective view of situations and override some of our most cherished beliefs because of its requirement that we focus exclusively on the final result. Smart and Bernard Williams, 1973. One doctor speaking to the Business Insider claimed: "If you had, let's say, an ICU that was overwhelmed, you're probably going to try and give some extra attention to healthcare workers because you need them to deliver care," he said. The foregoing are just a sample of the ethical approaches a healthcare professional may adopt in practice and it may be argued that there are three main moral theories from which these approaches may, in part, spring, namely virtue ethics, deontology and consequentialism. Katy Baker studied Philosophy at the University of Kent and is now part of the Philosophy Now team. The other way of thinking about the relationship is the focus of this paper. We will discuss three common ethical theories and how it handle the case of truth telling in medical practice as an example. 2012 Jul;68(7):1516-25. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2648.2011.05897.x. Accessed July 31, 2018. Human behavior prediction using facial expression analysis. Because it counted every persons pleasure or pain as the same, regardless of age, wealth, race, etc. Do not sell or share my personal information, 1. https://www.hhs.gov/hipaa/for-professionals/privacy/special-topics/de-identification/index.html. In-depth content analysis of the data was undertaken via NVivo coding and thematic identification. . The site is secure. As what matters is only the end result, who is acting or how they arrive at the decisions they make is irrelevant. In particular, it retains a commitment in many jurisdictions to the Sanctity of Life Doctrine, though this is being shed or modified as assisted dying becomes legalised. HHS Vulnerability Disclosure, Help 101-336, 104 Stat 327. An interpretive exploratory study was undertaken, 11 registered acute care nurses working in a district general hospital in England were interviewed, using semi-structured interviews. The most famous form of consequentialist ethics is utilitarianism which was first proposed by Jeremy Bentham and then furthered by John Stuart Mill in the 19th century. Viewed from a consequentialist perspective, one of the primary purposes of an organizational ethics program is to ensure that the organization is not penalized for the actions of its individual employees and to avoid the bad consequences that might result from such actions (e.g., fines, lawsuits, etc). Conseque. Any prior commitments are disregarded or, if taken into consideration, are unlikely to have any substantial effect on the outcome. In broad terms, a hedonist is someone who tries to maximise pleasure and minimise pain. Clipping is a handy way to collect important slides you want to go back to later. Blease had argued that patients' attention should be . A study of nurses' ethical climate perceptions: Compromising in an uncompromising environment. Also, in certain situations, consequentialism can lead to decisions that are objectionable, even though the consequences are arguably good. This document is part of a series of papers intended to introduce January 9, 2017. https://www.wired.com/2017/01/computers-can-tell-glance-youve-got-genetic-disorders/. Consequentialism Ethics Consequentialism focus on the outcome or consequence of the actions. She earned a JD from Harvard Law School and a PhD from the University of Chicago in comparative human development. This was his theory of rule utilitarianism. One does not have to be a specialist in ethics to do so. Core values versus common sense: consequentialist views appear less rooted in morality. These include efforts to create AI systems that explain the rationale behind the results generated.31 Clinicians can also be trained to consider and respond to limitations and biases of FRT systems.32 In addition, organizations such as the National Human Genome Research Institute have sought to diversify the range of people whose images are included in their image databases.33. May 17, 2017. https://undark.org/article/facial-recognition-technology-biased-understudied/. 2016;2016(5):2-3. Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, Pub L No. Articles, podcasts, videos, research & courses tackling the issues that matter. The most famous version of non-consequentialism is deontology, which holds that one has an absolute duty to obey certain rules. health ethics. October 6, 2017. http://www.clinicalinformaticsnews.com/2017/10/06/3d-facial-recognition-gives-healthcare-data-a-new-look.aspx. Whilst the drowning child example seems to support the existence of negative responsibility, it differs in that there are no commitments or beliefs preventing us from saving the child. Basel-Vanagaite L, Wolf L, Orin M, et al. Medical News Today. First, as it is the general performance of all people that is collectively coordinated to promote the overall good, rule-consequentialism may distribute a fair share of the burden to all participants in society (Mulgan 2001, p. 54). Washington Post. Williams furthers this explanation; making the best of a bad job is one of its maxims, and it will have something to say even on the difference between massacring seven million, and massacring seven million and one (Consequentialism and its Critics, 1988). So whilst both acts are morally abhorrent, the consequentialist will inevitably say that if these are the only options available then not only should we choose to massacre seven million, but that it would be right to do so. Utilitarianism is one of the forms of consequentialism that states that everything has a consequence. Any consequentialist ethical theory has to provide a justification of how we decide which consequences are good or bad. Youve read one of your four complimentary articles for this month. Key considerations included nursing's moral ontology, the nurse-patient relationship, potential impact on the profession, ethical principles and theories, moral culpability for acts versus omissions, the role of intention and the nature of the society in which euthanasia would be enacted. The best-known consequentialist ethical theory is utilitarianism, which says that the wrongness or rightness of an action depends on the amount of overall good or utility that is produced. Bethesda, MD 20894, Web Policies Provide a clear and easy-to-understand guidelines. Something is then considered "wrong" if it creates the opposite reaction. 2022 Jul;57(4):852-864. doi: 10.1111/1460-6984.12725. J Med Ethics. However, despite these efforts, the oppressing side ignores the foreign powers efforts. A requirement to uphold the confidentiality of information shared in the physician-patient relationship is a central tenet of medical professionalism that, while at risk and undermined in various ways in modern medicine [1], has been consistently endorsed from the time of Hippocrates. The .gov means its official. In many hospitals and healthcare trusts across the world this is the thought process that is guiding their policies regarding who should be treated in hospitals. Submit a manuscript for peer review consideration. Utilitarianism (also called consequentialism) is a moral theory developed and refined in the modern world in the writings of Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806-1873). Consequentialism is a type of normative ethical theory which states that the moral quality of an action is completely determined by its consequences, and nothing else. arXiv. 1. But in Jims case his pain at killing one person is a relatively minor consideration when the very lives of nineteen others (and the happiness of their families and friends) is at stake. Whenever we are faced with a decision, an act consequentialist will expect us to ask that question. Reimagining Medical Education in the Age of AI, Steven A. Wartman, MD, PhD and C. Donald Combs, PhD. Nicole Martinez-Martin, JD, PhD is a postdoctoral fellow at the Stanford Center for Biomedical Ethics in Stanford, California. Consequentialism is based on two principles: Whether an act is right or wrong depends only on the results of that act The more good consequences an act produces, the better or more right that act. Some consequentialists even argue that alienation is necessary for social progress. All Rights Reserved. 14,15 Another major area for FRT applications in health care is patient identification and monitoring, such . Non-consequentialism, the person as an end-in-itself, and the significance of status. Cohen IG, Amarasingham R, Shah A, Xie B, Lo B. Mazura JC, Juluru K, Chen JJ, Morgan TA, John M, Siegel EL. Should Watson Be Consulted for a Second Opinion? Although there are references to this idea in the works of ancient philosopherEpicurus, its closely associated with English philosopherJeremy Bentham. Accessibility Accessed October 26, 2018. In order to meet these challenges effectively, we need to identify how nurses contribute the resolution of these dilemmas. Consequentialism. The use of FRT in health care suggests the importance of informed consent, data input and analysis quality, effective communication about incidental findings, and potential influence on patient-clinician relationships. Unable to load your collection due to an error, Unable to load your delegates due to an error. If you dont, you should be held partly responsible for the childs death. December 9, 2017. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/320316.php. Employers might also be interested in using FRT tools to predict mood or behavior as well as to predict longevity, particularly for use in wellness programs to lower employers health care costs. 2021 Jul-Aug;42(4):787-791. doi: 10.1016/j.gerinurse.2021.04.020. Participants were recruited from all settings working with patients of any age and any diagnosis. Design: The oppressor, obviously, retaliates with ever more repressive measures to crush the minority by force. Geriatr Nurs. In this case, they would argue that welfare would be maximised by giving the last ventilator to the 20 year old. Clinical Informatics News. Machine learning and the profession of medicine. For consequentialism, life is a numbers game; an action should aim to make the majority happy, regardless of who they are, and should aim to go for actions that produce minimal pain. Consequentialism focuses on promoting the best consequences, but what kind of consequences are the best? But if telling a lie would help save a persons life, consequentialism says its the right thing to do. Hossain MS, Muhammad G. Cloud-assisted framework for health monitoring. FRT is being developed to predict health characteristics, such as longevity and aging. Front Neurosci. Daniel Schiff, MS and Jason Borenstein, PhD, Confidentiality/Duty to protect confidential information, https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/320316.php, https://www.wired.com/2017/01/computers-can-tell-glance-youve-got-genetic-disorders/, http://www.mobihealthnews.com/content/fdna-launches-app-based-tool-clinicians-using-facial-recognition-ai-and-genetic-big-data, https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/can-your-face-reveal-how-long-youll-live-new-technology-may-provide-the-answer/2014/07/02/640bacb4-f748-11e3-a606-946fd632f9f1_story.html, https://medcitynews.com/2016/01/aicure-fundraise/, https://mhealthintelligence.com/news/ehr-provider-touts-mhealth-access-by-apples-facial-recognition-app, https://medium.com/ibm-watson-data-lab/keeping-your-machine-learning-models-up-to-date-f1ead546591b, https://www.forbes.com/sites/quora/2017/09/06/ten-things-everyone-should-know-about-machine-learning, https://undark.org/article/facial-recognition-technology-biased-understudied/, https://medium.com/@blaisea/do-algorithms-reveal-sexual-orientation-or-just-expose-our-stereotypes-d998fafdf477, https://www.technologyreview.com/s/604087/the-dark-secret-at-the-heart-of-ai/, http://www.clinicalinformaticsnews.com/2017/10/06/3d-facial-recognition-gives-healthcare-data-a-new-look.aspx, https://oneworldidentity.com/google-takes-aim-controversial-stringent-illinois-biometric-privacy-law/, https://www.hhs.gov/hipaa/for-professionals/privacy/special-topics/de-identification/index.html. Handb Clin Neurol. He said, she said: Investigating the Christian Porter Case. This chapter outlines core characteristics of Utilitarianism and explores them with regard to their significance in healthcare settings. Brostoff G. 3D facial recognition gives healthcare data a new look. If this is demanded of all moral agents, then general unhappiness is likely to ensue rather than the opposite.
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